General Anthropology: A Study of Humanity

General Anthropology Anthropology use up of valetity valet de chambreness and polishs 4 Sub-Fields 1. Socio-Cultural focuses on living tenderity cultures, international patterns of belief and behavior found in in advance(p) and historical cultures, participant observation a. Influenced behaviors, customs, traditions, beliefs b. Non-biological of adaptation to the human environment, social and innate 2. Anthropological Linguistics commentary and study of structure and history of language and kinship to culture, study of human speech and language 3. archaeology study of material culture of past human brio and activities c.Cultural history/ chronology d. Life ways e. Processes 4. bring of humans as sensuals ontogenyary theory and patrimonials, carnal and biological Anthropology is holistic * Culture Integrated brass * Biological, Ecological, Social * Bio-Cultural Approach feedback loop amidst culture and environment * NON-ETHNOCENTRIC (more than 1 way to vie w the world) populace be distinct Animals, Mammals, Primates, Problem solvers, Bipedal locomotion (walk on 2 feet), Opposable thumbs, stereoscopic vision, larger-than- tone brain, reproduction (no estrus cycle), and culture Chapter 1 VocabularyHominins margin for phalluss of the maturationary class including humans and extinct bipedal coituss Bipedal walks on both feet / legs Primates members of the couch of mammals Bio-cultural evolution evolution of human biology and culture, two further mathematical function ons atomic number 53 an a nonher(prenominal), leads to understanding human evolution Ethnographies detailed descriptive studies of human societies Paleoanthropology study of disease and injury in human in straitened circumstances(p) Anthropometry measurement of human physical structure parts deoxyribonucleic acid double-stranded molecule that contains familial code Osteology study of purpose little materialPrimatology study of biology and behavio r of nonhuman order Primates Continuum set of kinds in which all components fall on a unmarried integrated spectrum (humans atomic number 18 a product of the very(prenominal) force that larnd all c atomic number 18er on earth) Empirical relying on experiment or observation Cultural Relativism cultures have merits or expenditure within their own historical and environ mental contexts classic Names Alfred Wallace f. On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart indefinitely from the Original Type (1858) g. The best adapted survived the slight well adapted perished Charles Darwin a.On the Origin of Species. (1859) b. Concept of internal selection c. Evolution d. isHisTheory * All species offspring ? regimen supply * variate, some more favorable * compete for existence * Variations near componentration * Successful noveltys diff. replys in following(a) species Charles Lyell a. Uniformitarianism Cuvier a. Catastrophism Gregor Mendel a. Worked in the monasterys garden * Experimented with fertilization of flowers ( unfermented color variations) * Fascinated by the regularity with which the same hybrid forms always reappe argond when fertilization took place in the midst of the same species. b. Mendels experiments * keep an eye on the number of distinguishable forms of hybrids * Arrange them according to multiplications * Attempt to evaluate the statistical relationships c. Common Garden Pea * Seed shape, plant color, flower color, pod shape, pod color, flower position, stand height d. Law of separatism * trenchant units of inherited information argon passed from one generation to the neighboring e. Different somato hereditary expressions be birth some traits were dominating all over opposites * Dominant Trait i. Visible or measured ii.Prevents the carriage of the recessive allele trait iii. Round is dominant * Recessive Trait iv. Not visible or measurable when diametrical with the dominant allelomorph v. lone(prenominal) visible or measurable when dominant allele is absent Gould and Eldredge a. Punctuated equilibrium the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered Lamarck a. Theory of Acquired Characteristics Linnaeus a. Adherent to great chain of macrocosm b. Developed system of compartmentalization * Binomial linguistic subprogram Thomas Malthus a. universe growths unrestrained by born(p) sources will double every 25 years. . BUT, efficiency for food production increase only in a straight arithmetic progression. c. The impulse to spawn is counteracted by THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE d. THE INFINITE magnificence OF MANKIND VERSUS THE LIMITED SIZE & RESOURCES OF THE EARTH. e. The Dilemma of state maturation i. Preventative checks (foresight) vs. positive check (infant mortality, famine) Chapter 2 Vocabulary Fixity of Species the notion that species, once created, stinker never transmit, opposes biological evolution Reproductively isolated groups or organisms, ainly because of genetic take issuee nces, are prevented from brotherhood and reproducing offspring with members of various groups Reproductive conquest the number of offspring an unhomogeneous(prenominal) rises and rears to reproductive age and individuals genetic contribution to the next generation Selective pressures forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Genome the unblemished genetic makeup of an individual or species Fertility the big businessman to conceive and produce healthy offspring Chapter 3 VocabularyGametes reproductive carrells (eggs and sperm in animals) Somatic kiosk all cells in body except those bear on in reproduction Zygote cell make by the union of an egg and sperm cell, contains chromosomes Nucleotides prefatory units of deoxyribonucleic acid moleculeEnzymes specialized proteins that initiate and direct chemical substance reactions in the body hemoglobin protein molecule that occurs in red line of work cells and binds to oxygen molec ules Mitosis simple cell division produces two identical daughter cells miosis cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes Recombination the interchange of genetic material between homological chromosomes cross-over Genome entire genetic makeup of an individual or species Evolutionary Theory Catastrophism * Cuvier * new-made species could not win from old Time-to-time catastrophes occur, destroys all living things in authorized sweeps * New forms populate area by migration * entryway migrants had more modern visual aspect due to the result of more recent creation events Uniformitarianism * Lyell * Processes at work today = active throughout history of earth = those occurred in past * James Hutton = ancient, on-going, continuous, without end * geologic change ( earthquakes, vol bumoes, etc) were consistent, uniformed, constant through time Forces of EvolutionEvolution (Darwin) the bit-by-bit unfolding of new varieties of life from previous forms * youthfu l Synthesis ( 2 stage process) 1. The production and redistribution of variation ( transmitted differences among organisms) * Mutation (in sex cells) change in DNA, one allele changes to another(prenominal), also point mutations * Mutagens are agents of mutations chemicals, radiation, entire temperatures * Passes to offspring in gametes not somatic cells Migration (gene flow) exchange of genes between universe of discourse, migration * Genetic drift (random force) function of population size * Rare allele may not be passed to offspring due to small population, allele may disappear * Founder Effect allele frequencies alter in small pop. that are interpreted from larger pop. or parents pop. , they colonize a new location 2. Natural selection (individual and population) affects their ability to success honorabley reproduce * 4 net reproductive success * Ex peppered moth Great Chain of Being * uncounted series of forms simple complex The universe was full * Progressive grading infe rior superior * apiece creatures position was fixed * No new species * No extinctions Species * Proposed in the 17th ampere-second * Groups of plants and animals could be differentiated by other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce fertile offspring (John Ray) * Frequently share similarities with other species second level of classification genus * Linnaeus binomial terminology genus and species names are used to refer to species * Ex homo sapiens = human beings * Taxonomy system of classification Genus and species * Class and order Theory of Acquired Characteristics * Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) * on that point is a dynamic interaction between original forms and the environment. * Characteristics that an individual might acquire in a lifetime would be passed on to succeeding generations. Principles of inheritance Principle of Independent Assortment * The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair * The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another Principle of Segregation Genes (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs * During gamete formation, the members of for for each one one pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair Genes and Chromosomes Allele and Gene * jumpstart forms of a gene * Sequence of DNA Chromosome * Discrete structures composed of DNA and protein found only in nuclei of cells Co-dominance * The expression of two alleles in heterozygote, the products of both are present * Ex blood token AB Cross-over the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes recombination * when paired chromosomes exchange DNA, genes sometimes find themselves in different genetic environments Dihybrid crosses * These are ALWAYS the ratios of a cross between two HETEROZYGOUS individuals, when two variables are involved. * RrYy X RrYy DNA, base pair * DNA molecule has 4 chemical bases 1. Adenine = A 2. triiodothyronine = T 3. Cytosine = C 4. g-force = G * Except for protein synthesis * Adenine and Thymine are base pairs = AT * Cytosine and g-force are base pairs = CG In protein synthesis ribonucleic acid subs Uracil = U for Thymine * AT AU Dominant = shows, Recessive = does not show put throughs syndrome * Trisomy 21, abnormal number of autosomes compatible with life beyond the first few years later onward birth * tryd by the presence of 3 copies of chromosome 21 * Mental impairment, heart defects, respiratory transmittals, leukemia haemophilia * bleed disorder in which the blood doesnt clot normally * Primarily only masculines * Recessive allele for hemophilia on the female X chromosome. * Male hemophiliacs realize the deleterious gene from their mothers. There is an equal retrieve that a female will have the recessive allele on one of her two X chromosomes. * H = Normal clotting h = Hemophilia * HH Female = Normal * Hh Female = No rmal mailman * HY Male = Normal * hY Male = Hemophilia genotype = genetic make-up of a trait Phenotype = physical expression of the genotype Homologous Chromosomes = paired chromosomes, paired during meiosis and participate in cross-over, same loci homozygous = same alleles Heterozygous = different alleles Pleiotropic Traits * multiple set up at different times in the life span The phenomenon of one gene being responsible for(p) for or affecting more than one phenotypic characteristic * A synergetic affect on more than one part of the body * Ex sickle cell, albinism Polygenic Traits * Traits that are influenced by genes at 2 or more loci * Ex uncase color, eye color, hair color * Many are influenced by environmental factors * Ex nutrition, sunlight ikon Polymorphism * Loci with more than one allele * above 1% in the population * Traits that differ in expression between individuals and populations * Ex native blood, macabre Protein and Amino Acids 3-D molecules that serve a across-the-board variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules * Small molecules that are the components of proteins Sex Linkage * twenty-third Chromosomal Pair * Females XX * Males XY * Homogametic versus Heterogametic * Sex joined traits * Ex colorblindness, hemophilia * Male hemophiliacs receive gene from their mothers Sickle Cell Trait/anemia Malaria * Hemoglobin (146 Amino Acids) * Sickle cell caused by shimmy one base pair (point mutation) * Heterozygous carriers are much more resistant to malarial infection * Malaria * People of all ages susceptible Four types of human malaria caused by four species of parasites (Plasmodium) * Transmitted by mosquitoes phone line and Blood Types * At least 29 human blood group systems * Antigen = large molecules found on the surface of cells , several different loci govern various antigens on red and white blood cells * Antibody each type is incomparable and defends the body against one particular proposition ty pe of antigen * triad important blood groups * ABO System * Four blood types * A (dominant) antigen * B (dominant) antigen * AB(co-dominance)antigen, universal recipient * O(recessive ii)none, universal donor Alleles are designated as follows * A = IA B = IB O= i * 4 phenotypes 6 genotypes * Rh Factor * other group of antigens found on red blood cells. * Rh Positive = Rh+ (Dominant allele) * Rh interdict = Rh- (Recessive allele) * Rh- blood does not agglutinate with the antiserum * Greatest task is not with transfusions, but between mother and fetus. * A problem ONLY if the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+ * A serum containing Anti-Rh+ may be administered to Rh- mothers later their first birth. (RhoGam) * MN Group * Three genotypes (Chromosome 4) * MM MN * NN * Appear to be no incompatibilities that cause complications during transfusions or between mother and fetus. * Co-dominant group * 3 genotypes produce 3 phenotypes Population Genetics allopatric speciation * Speciation by geographic isolation * Gradual changes can lead to sufficient genetic differences Ecological street corner * The position of a species within its physical and biological environments * Components diet, terrain, type of predators, vegetation, relationships with other species, and activity patterns * Niches are unique to each species * Together makes up an ecosystemFitness = measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals, genetic contribution to the next generation Gene Flow = exchange of genes between populations Gene Pool = all of the genes shared by the reproductive members of a population Hardy-Weinberg (Equilibrium Principle) * No genetic drift, mutation, migration, selection * Random mating * Math relationship of allele and genotype * A = p a = q p + q = 1 or 100% alleles in gene pool * In the absence of evolutionary processes, gene frequencies (allele frequencies) will remain constant from generation to generation * P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 proportion of genotypes AA + Aa + aa = 1 Macroevolution = changes produced only after many generations, such as the new appearance of a new species Microevolution = small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies Phyletic Gradualism * inert changes result in new species * The complete dodo record of an evolving group would display a series of forms with finely graded transitional differences between each source and its descendant * Many missing think would be present Punctuated Equilibrium Uneven, nongradual process of prospicient stasis and quick spurts * The concept that evolutionary change take through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change * There are no missing relate, gaps are real Random Mating = no bias in who mates any male is assumed to have an equal chance of mating with any female Selective Pressure = forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Selective Agent = the agent or cause of the selective pressu re event?Sympatric = process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic part Unit of Evolution * Population * Evolves Unit of Selection * Individual * Does not evolve Human Variation Race * breeds of domestic animals, their group measurement, or their subscriber line from a common beginning * Has no helpful biological meaning because variations in human appearance occur on a continuum. Acclimatization * physiologic responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individuals lifetime * Maybe be temporary or permanent Its capacity may typify an entire species or population * Under genetic influence, its subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection and genetic drift Allens form * Concerns shape of the body * Colder climates = shorter appendages, adaptive for preventing heat blemish * Vice versa Bergmanns Rule * Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area * In mammals, body si ze is greater in population that lives in colder climates * Vice versa Kuru * Neurodegenerative disorder * misgiving and loss of balance First appeared in New Guinea * Primarily affected adult women and children * Three main stages of progression * Ambulant unsteady, tremor, speech slander * Sedentary muscle jerks, laughter outbursts, depression and mental slowing * Terminal Urinary and fecal incontinence, impediment swallowing, deep ulcerations appear * Caused by cerebellar disfunction * It is a prion disease = infectious particles composed of a protein that causes neurodegenerative disorders Kwashiorkor * Severe protein deficiency * Tissue swelling * Anemia * Loss of hair Apathy Lactase attention * The continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose ( scribble milk) * Allows some adults to digest fresh milk products Marasmus * Caused by the combine effects of protein and calorie deficiency * PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) Osteology bring up Markers * Heterogeneous * Dynamic Organ * Constantly remodeled and replaced * passing responsive to stress * Bone Mass IS not constant Characteristics of Bone * Compact work up * virtually dense * Least vascularized * Often covers cancellous chock up * Cancellous cram Heavily vascularized with large sacs (marrow spaces that produce red blood cells) and pores * Subchondrial bone * A type of compact bone located at the joints and cover with cartilage in life * Generally less dense and more vascularized than regular compact bone Bone Growth * The primary centers of growth are the DIAPHYSES Responsible for most of the growth of long swot up * Secondary centers are the EPIPHYSES and are separated from the diaphyses by the * METAPHYSES, which are thin layers of cartilage being overtaken by bone formation. This is the actual site of bone growth.Harris course of study = growth interruption, nutritional deficits Human Bone Growth * Human Dental Formula = 2. 1. 2. 3 * Determine sex * Determin e age * Physical characteristics of populations * Population structure and demography * State of health, longevity, disease during life. * Cause of death. How is this different than Manner of Death? * Evidence of trauma. * nutritional history (bone chemistry dental wear). * Relatedness of populations (DNA and genetic bone characteristics) * Social Complexity (cultural modifications, differential nutritional status, health, profound goods). Belief systems (treatment of dead). Chapter 4 Vocabulary Hybrids offspring of parents who differ from each other, heterozygotes Locus the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs Mendelian traits characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus Chapter 5 Vocabulary Chordata phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates Vertebrates animals with segmented, bony spinal columns Homologies similarities between organisms ground on descent from a common ancestor Analogies .. based strictly on common fu nction Homoplasy same evolutionary development in different groups of organisms Clade group of organisms sharing a common ancestor Speciation process by which a new species evolves from an sooner species most basic process in macroevolution Genus group of closely related species Chapter 12 Vocabulary Homeostasis- setting of balance or stability Population genetics the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a small evolutionary perspective